Preface
1 Introduction
2 Public Health
Public Health and Controversy
Public Health Origins and Development
State and Local Public Health Agencies
Non-Governmental Public Health
Public Health Accomplishments
Efficacy of the COVID Vaccine
A Recent Special Case
Another Recent Case
3 Private Health Insurance
Origins of Private Health Insurance
From a Community Rate to Risk Rating
From Prepaid Care to Health Maintenance
The Affordable Care Act
The Individual Mandate
The Employed Mandate
Health Insurance and Prices
Legislation Aimed at Health System Reform
4 Health Insurance – Public Programs
Origins of Medicare and Medicaid
Medicare
Part A
Part B
Part D
Part C – Medicare Advantage Plans
Medicare Advantage Business Operations
Medicaid
The ACA and Reform
Public Opinion and Medicaid
Medicaid and Managed Care
State Child Health Insurance Program
Continuing Policy Debates
5 Health Care Occupations
The Medical Profession
Medical Specialization
The Medical Education System
The Organization of Medical Practice
How Physicians Get Paid
Medical Professionalism
Medical Error and Malpractice
Nurses
Therapists
Technicians and Technologists
Other Practitioners
Administrators and Other Administrative Workers
6 Hospital and Other Healthcare Organizations
A Brief History of the Modern Hospital
Growth and Development
Rising Costs of Care
The Shorter Length of Stay
Hospitals and Quality of Care
Growth of the For-Profit Hospital Sector
Consolidation of Nonprofit Hospitals
The Chargemaster
Differences by Hospital Ownership
Other Healthcare Organizations
Initiatives Aimed at Reducing Costs
7 Pharmaceuticals
Steps Involved in Creating a Drug
Generic Drugs
Orphan Drugs
Pharmacy Benefit Managers
Getting Drugs to Market Sooner
Pharmacies
Pharmaceutical Companies and the COVID-19 Vaccine
Why Drugs Are So Expensive
Where Things Stand in Trying to Control Costs
8 Healthcare Systems in Other Countries
Canada
England
Switzerland
Japan
Spain
France
Germany
More On International Comparisons
Some Final Observations
9 Determinants of Health
Education and Inequality
Deaths of Despair
Health Disparities and Race
Social Support Networks
Upstream Versus Downstream Intervention
Final Thoughts
Addendum